Factors influencing Healthcare Services Free Sample for Students

Questions: 1.Explain why Education is a Social Determinants of wellbeing when all is said in done and not Specific to the Video. 2.Using Relevant Examples from the video, plot at any rate two Other Social Determinants of Health of Health that Influenced Health Outcomes for the Children going to School. 3.Using Relevant Examples from the video, Explain how at any rate two Primary Health Care Principles guided the Project in the Video. Answers: Determinants of Health 1.Education is a social determinant of wellbeing. It decides people groups wellbeing from multiple points of view. For instance, training can outfit individuals with mindfulness and information to use in getting themselves, others, and nature in which they live. Information is power since it can empower individuals to do solid exercises, for example, physical activities; eating of a sound and adjusted eating routine; utilization of defensive gadgets during sex; individual cleanliness, and ecological assurance. Likewise, quality training can engage individuals financially. Be that as it may, these advantages can't be delighted in by the individuals who have no instruction. Without instruction, individuals can't know about the significance of human services in their lives (Di Cesare, et al., 2013). Simultaneously, they have no information to use in settling on significant choices with respect to meds, causes, side effects, treatment, and anticipation of sicknesses. More terrible still, without training, individuals can think that its difficult to get rewarding work openings. This is what befalls the Aboriginals. 2.The first social determinant featured in the video is instruction. The video shows how the degree of people groups training decides how they get to quality social insurance administrations. The second social determinant caught in the video is culture. Culture is a typical factor that assumes a critical job in impacting people openness to medicinal services administrations. At the point when individuals have confidence in present day medication, they can without much of a stretch look for clinical mediation at whatever point they have an issue to be tended to (Gajjar, Zwi, Hill Shannon, 2014). Be that as it may, when individuals don't have confidence in current medication, they can't sit around idly heading off to the social insurance offices to be taken care of. In the video, it is demonstrated how the social foundation of the youngsters decides their openness to human services administrations. Two differentiating models are given. To begin with, there is a class of youngsters who put stock in current patterns in wellbeing. These are the kids who go to the medical clinics since they realize that it is so imperative to them (Doolan, et al., 2015). Be that as it may, ther e is a class of youngsters who have faith in conventional hedge medication and herbs. Such kids are so hesitant to look for social insurance administrations since it has no an incentive to add to their lives. The other determinant portrayed in the video is social class. The video is an away from of the Australian culture which is separated into lower, center and higher social classes. In the video, every one of these classes is spoken to. Of every one of these classes, it is just the kids from higher layers who social class who thought that it was simpler to get to quality human services administrations (Panaretto, Wenitong, Button Ring, 2014). This was trailed by the youngsters from the center and lower classes individually. The motivation behind why availability to quality medicinal services administrations ascends with the social class is that individuals in the higher layers are enabled, proficient, and favored. 3.The venture in the video succeeded on the grounds that it was guided by various standards. Much the same as some other task, it was appropriately composed and executed utilizing the standards of equivalent availability and social incorporation. The venture included the utilization of the standard of availability. In Australia, the conveyance of essential medicinal services is driven by the rule of openness. The legislature is worried about diminishing the differences and formation of equity and value in its medicinal services segment. This is what was done in the video. In spite of the fact that the undertaking included kids from various foundations, endeavors were made to guarantee that all of them was given equivalent chances of getting to the administrations. To do as such, different measures were taken. For instance, all the pointless deterrents were evacuated. Plus, kids were treated with equity in light of the fact that their experience was utilized as a factor for profiting the administrations to them (Russell, 2013). The strengthening and sharpening of the youngsters to take an interest in the task exhibited that it depended on the standards of fairness. Likewise, the venture was guided by the guideline of social joining. Since the undertaking is an away from of the Australian culture, it included members from differing financial decent varieties. Every one of these gatherings has an alternate perspectives, qualities, and convictions on social insurance. Thus, for them to be associated with the task, they must be coordinated by effectively joining their investment and qualities. For instance, during the task, the Aboriginals were perceived as a unique class of individuals with an unmistakable culture to be regarded and acknowledged (Kendall Barnett, 2015). Something very similar was done to the members from the non-indigenous networks who were additionally melded into the task. The consolidation of the decent varieties among the members made the undertaking to be a triumph. Wellbeing Promotion Poster The focal message in this banner is smoking. The banner contains an image of children who are battling against smoking. Its intended interest group is smokers who are encouraged to shun the training. Smoking has been an industrious issue in the Aboriginal people group. It is an awful way of life that has been connected to various ailments like malignant growth, coronary episode, and respiratory contaminations. References Di Cesare, M., et al., (2013). Disparities in non-transmittable maladies and viable reactions. The Lancet, 381(9866), 585-597. Doolan, I., et al., (2015). A review correlation investigation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander infusing drug clients and their contact with youth confinement or potentially jail. Australian Indigenous Health Bulletin, 15(4). Gajjar, D., Zwi, A.B., Hill, P.S. Shannon, C., (2014). A contextual investigation in the utilization of proof in a changing political setting: an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander wellbeing administration re- looks at training models, administration and financing. Australian Health Review, 38(4), pp.383-386. Kendall, E., Barnett, L. (2015). Standards for the advancement of Aboriginal wellbeing mediations: socially fitting strategies through foundational sympathy. Ethnicity wellbeing, 20(5), 437-452. Panaretto, K. S., Wenitong, M., Button, S., Ring, I. T. (2014). Native people group controlled wellbeing administrations: driving the path in essential consideration. Prescription J Aust, 200(11), 649-52. Russell, L.M. (2013). Reports demonstrate that changes are expected to close the hole for Indigenous wellbeing. Prescription J Aust, 199(11), pp.1-2.

Diagnosis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Conclusion - Case Study Example Alongside this, there are anorexia and catabolic procedure of ceaseless fiery procedure of the infection. All these may join to cause significant weight reduction over a brief timeframe. 3. Since there is a part of malabsorption, Schilling test might be done to preclude Vit B12 insufficiency. Electrolytes to preclude potassium, magnesium, and calcium lacks should be finished. Serum egg whites would demonstrate hypoalbuminaemia showing amino corrosive malabosrption or protein losing enteropathy. Air-differentiate barium douche and CT filter should be improved outline the terminal ileal association. Colonoscopic assessment with rectal biopsy can yield the histologic idea of the infection. 4. Aside from other general estimates like nothing orally, intravenous nourishment, liquid revival, the clinical treatment of first decision would have been sulfasalazine. This medication comprises of a sulfapyridine moiety artificially bound to 5-aminosalicylate. This experiences bacterial cleavage, the freed sulfapyridine is ingested, and the salicylate part applies its calming activity through hindrance of prostaglandin union, therefore diminishing the aggravation. 5. 5. The entanglements that may emerge out of this illness, that is, Crohn's ailment are intestinal impediment; fistula development with coterminous intestinal lumen or urinary tract; little inside or colonic harm; bile salt malabsorption prompting expanded nerve stones; and expanded rate of urinary tract oxalate stones. 6. In the event that there is related ceaseless irritation of the bone marrow, there might be pallor with decline in the platelet tally. The pallor is variable, so are the red cell lists. Megaloblastic weakness with expanded MCV is uncommon. 7. Based on these starter tests, the determination would be Crohn's infection. This malady presents in a youthful grown-up with variable weight reduction, right lower quadrant uneasiness or agony, and looseness of the bowels. The looseness of the bowels is typically moderate regularly without net blood. The patient looked pale because of sickliness, and mouth ulcerations were expected to aphthous stomatitis, which is a typical backup. The correct lower quadrant delicacy is predictable with the mass felt per midsection that reflected follower circles of entrail. True to form, the blood picture reflected pallor and leukocytosis. The last analysis is produced using the presence of the distal ileum that indicated narrowing and thickening of the intestinal divider. 8. The fundamental hazard factor is hereditary inclination to the advancement of the malady. Whites and Jews have expanded rates, and expanded prevalence of sickness in monozygotic twins support. Definite hereditary linkage yet to be found. 9. The other hazard factors that might be included are, insusceptible system recommended by extra-intestinal appearances, variations from the norm of cell-interceded resistance, and mental variables brought about by pressure. 10. There is extensive individual variety regarding drug digestion, thus impacts of the medication. Medication digestion is identified with cytochrome P450 group of qualities. In people, catalysts encoded by P450 qualities are situated in the liver where they process drugs. Through oxidative digestion, these improve water solvency of the medication to upgrade its discharge. For drugs that are utilized along these lines, this procedure influences the blood levels of the compound, so the restorative viability, and once in a while, this is important to

Expressionism Modern Architecture of 20th Century - An Example Paper

Expressionism Modern Architecture of 20th Century - An Example Paper Expressionism: Modern Architecture of 20th Century An Example Paper An architectural style refers to a distinct construction method, usually characterized by attributes that make it unique. It may include elements such as form, construction method, the regional attributes and construction materials. The profession of architecture has grown tremendously, today. From the ancient days to the present moment, the architectural styles have gone through a massive transformation. A keen look at the various architectural strata reveals the extent of creativity and ingenuity that existed in the ancient times. Modern architect frequently relies upon the ancient architectural styles, whose design and functionality continue to inspire professional architects. Expressionist architecture developed in Europe during the initial decades of the twentieth century. Expressionism was characterized by the early-modernist use of new materials, formal innovations and the unique massing of materials. Natural biomorphic forms, as well as new technological possibilities, occasioned by the mass production of glass, steel and bricks motivated this massing. Expressionism was rather gothic than classic. This gave rise to forms and shapes that were distinct from the other architectural forms at the time. This was because such forms and shapes were represented from the emotions of the architect. A revenant interest of expressionist architects involved the use of materials. Its purpose was to combine the materials in a structure to make it monolithic. The Einstein Tower in Potsdam, which was constructed by Erich Mandelsohn, is a notable permanent existing landmark of expressionism. International architecture (style) was prevalent during the 1920s and the 1930s. It was more concerned with the symmetry and balance in architecture rather than the aesthetic and decorative elements. International architecture had its foundations in the “rational” use of contemporary building materials, the adherence to the principles of functional planning and the elimination of the traditional standards and ornament. Contrary to expressionist architecture, international architecture was principally an aesthetic style and not an issue of political statement. It viewed a building as a space enclosed by skeletal curtain walls, light and supported by slender piers. In Europe, several architects began to develop new architectural solutions aimed at integrating traditional models with new technological possibilities and social demands. Abstract painting, sculpture, and the machine inspired the visual aesthetic of international style. In 1932, the Museum of Modern Art in New York made the United States a stronghold of international (modern) architecture. While technology had precluded the extensive use of concrete during the expressionist periods, modernism enjoyed the widespread use of concrete, steel, and glass. By the mid twentieth century, modern architecture became a valuable instrument for addressing the increasingly intricate building needs of the contemporary society. Established architectural firms such as Owings, Merrill, and Abramovitz and Skidmore played a key part in popularizing modern architecture globally after the Second World War. While expressionism and modernism had differences with respect to the philosophy of design, they had certain similarities. Both styles used steel and glass extensively. Even though the international style did not use bricks extensively, it did use it nonetheless. The diff erent architectural styles have emerged from the history of certain societies. In most cases, a new style is often a rebellion against an extant one. For instance, expressionism was the predecessor of modernism. Styles usually spread to other places and develop in new ways as other regions invent new versions.

The Scandal Of Healthsouth Corporation Scandal - 1391 Words

Organizational misconduct is the chief cause behind corporate accounting scandals. The trusted executives of the corporation participation in actions during a scandal are corrupt and illegal. In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is typically the government agency that investigates such scandals. One of the most notorious corporate accounting scandals in the United States is the HealthSouth Corporation scandal of 2003. HealthSouth Corporation is one of the United States largest health care providers with locations nationwide. A deeper inspection of the HealthSouth scandal is needed to understand how it transpired by assessing how it was executed, the accounting issues and root of the issue, how it was exposed, the results to the company and its officers, and warranted ramifications as an outcome of the scandal. Scandal Overview In 1984, Richard Scrushy founded HealthSouth in Birmingham, Alabama. Scrushy was the company’s Chairman and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) when the company went public in 1986. HealthSouth grew quickly over the next several years. Shortly after HealthSouth went public, it is alleged that Scrushy instructed senior staff to materially inflate the company’s earning to match expectations. In 2002, the first sign of troubles occurred when Scrushy sold $75 million of HealthSouth stock days before HealthSouth announced a large loss. After this the SEC began to investigate if any insider trading laws had been violated. In 2003,Show MoreRelatedThe Scandal Of Healthsouth Corporation Scandal1419 Words   |  6 Pagesthe chief cause behind corporate accounting scandals. The trusted executives of the corporation participation in actions during a scandal are corrupt, unethical, and illegal. In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is typical ly the government agency that investigates such scandals. One of the most notorious corporate accounting scandals in the United States is the HealthSouth Corporation scandal of 2003. HealthSouth Corporation is one of the United States largest healthcareRead MoreCase Study: Healthsouth Corporation Scandal1521 Words   |  7 PagesAnna James Case Study: HealthSouth Corporation Scandal Week3 Forensic Accounting: Ethics and Legal Environment Professor Erskine Hawkins HealthSouth Corporation is a large, public healthcare company that operates 93 inpatient rehabilitation hospital, 49 outpatient rehabilitation satellites, six long-term acute care hospitals, and 25 home health agencies. According to the company websites, it is â€Å"one of the nation’s largest healthcare providers specializing in rehabilitation†.5 The companyRead MoreHow Corporate Scandals Crush the Company, Investors, and Economy1333 Words   |  5 PagesTracing back the history of accounting scandals, major corporate scandals not only hurt the economy but also crush investors’ confidence on investing in companies. For example, the Enron scandal, the WorldCom scandal, and so on. The majority of corporate scandals are created by greedy corporate senior officers. One way to create a scandal is â€Å"cooking the books†. Cooking the book is an accounting term which means making false financial statements in order to meet the number that investors or banksRea d MoreThe Accounting Scandal of Healthsouth - Essay912 Words   |  4 PagesThe Accounting Scandal of HealthSouth HealthSouth Corporation is based in Birmingham, Alabama, it is the largest provider of rehabilitative health care services. It operates in 26 states in the United States of America and in Puerto Rico. HealthSouth provides rehabilitation hospitals, long term heightened care hospitals, outpatient rehabilitation satellite clinics and home health agencies. HealthSouth was found by Richard Scrushy in the year 1984 and was calledRead MoreThe Sarbanes Oxley Act Of 20021423 Words   |  6 PagesThe audit world was transformed more than ten years ago due to a series of accounting scandals. This change took place when The Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, otherwise known as SOX, was passed affecting not only business entities but also the firms that audit those companies (Thomas). One of the companies whose fraud was unmasked by the passage of SOX was HealthSouth Corporation. A company in the healthcare industry who had overstated about $2.7 billion dollars in earnings since 1996. The company’sRead MoreHealthsouth1309 Words   |  6 PagesINTRODUCTION HEALTHSOUTH Corporation (HEALTHSOUTH) began its rise in 1984 when Richard Scrushy, Aaron Beam, and other close associates formed the HEALTHSOUTH Empire with venture capital from New Enterprise Associates of Baltimore. In the beginning, Richard Scrushy was the chief executive officer (CFO), Aaron Beam was named the chief financial officer (CFO) and William Owen, an accountant from Ernst and Young, assumed the position of comptroller. HEALTHSOUTH went public in 1986 and began rapidlyRead MoreHcs 4051142 Words   |  5 Pagesaudit conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers concluded that HealthSouth Corporation s cumulative earnings were overstated by anywhere from $3.8 billion to $4.6 billion, according to a January 2004 report issued by the scandal-ridden health-care concern. HealthSouth acknowledged that the forensic audit discovered at least another $1.3 billion dollars in suspect financial reporting in addition to the previously estimated $2.5 billion. The scandal s postmortem report f ound additional fraud of $500 millionRead MoreThe Sarbanes Oxley Act Of 20021530 Words   |  7 Pagesthe Enron scandal the government had created a new law called the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. This law was put into place to put more responsibility onto the public accounting firms and not letting company executives violate any information for investors (Larry Bumgardner). The law also allows the Securities and Exchange Commission to oversee more corporate governance of company’s financial records. The Securities and Exchange Commission was given the power to freely investigate corporations or accountingRead MoreThe Anatomy Of Corporate Fraud Essay845 Words   |  4 Pagescomparative Analysis of High Profile American and European Corporate Scandals. The abstract discusses the analysis conducted on the three major American accounting scandals; Enron, WorldCom, and HealthSouth, and compares to the three major European accounting scandals; Parmalat, Royal Ahold, and Vivendi Universal. Bahram Soltani (2014), also discusses within the abstract the different areas reviewed regarding why the accounting scandals occurred; ethical climate, tone at the top, bubble economy and marketRead MoreEthical And Legal Perspectives, What Do You Feel Business? Learned From The Scrushy Situation?972 Words   |  4 Pagescheating happening and who is heading the deception? Behind every crime, there is a ringleader or a group of individuals calling the shots. In this case, Scrushy was the one who told his family meeting members to fix financial records, so HealthSouth to meet or exceed the business financial goals. A person from the beginning may have the objective to cheat; others get sucked into the whirlpool of white-collar crime. Corporate fraud is rampant, and it is becoming a part of our culture. We expect

Isolation And Its Effects On Its Victims - 3562 Words

Introduction Isolation has been portrayed in numerous texts for hundreds of years and is still a common theme in literature today. Isolation is not only portrayed in literature but also occurs in real life situations . The effect of isolation on its victims is that they try to overcome their state of isolation by finding a way to obtain some sort of companionship, whether it is with an inanimate object, imagination or with an animal. One does not require to be all alone to be isolated as there are different types of isolation, and one that is quite common today is being socially isolated. The four texts that portray one of these subtopics are ‘Cast Away’ directed by Robert Zemeckis, ‘I Am Legend’ directed by Francis Lawrence, ‘Miss Brill’ by Katherine Mansfield and ‘The Bath’ by Janet Frame. Connection One: Victims that are in state of isolation try to overcome it through obtaining some sort of companionship Those that are absolutely secluded from human civilisation tend to mentally change from their previous lifestyle to a new lifestyle as they try to overcome the state of isolation. They do it by trying to obtain some sort of companionship with inanimate object or animals to avert from teetering on the edge of insanity. This idea is conveyed through the films ‘I Am Legend’ directed by Francis Lawrence, ‘Cast Away’ directed by Robert Zemeckis and also in the short story ‘Miss Brill’ by Katherine Mansfield. In ‘I Am Legend’ â€Å"A deadly virus burned through† humanShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Social Media On Teenagers Essay1259 Words   |  6 PagesAlexsandra Rodriguez Professor Alexandra Dragin Rhetoric 102 November 15, 2016 Prompt #1 The Negative Effects Social Media has on Teenagers Social media is defined as â€Å"forms of electronic communication (as Web sites for social networking and micro blogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content.† (Merriam-Webster, 2004). Social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube have the attention of millions ofRead MoreSocial Characters In Of Mice And Men By John Steinbeck947 Words   |  4 Pagesexist, Of Mice and Men describes of the horrendous effects that isolation has on the lives of the migrant workers living near the Soledad river. 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Assessments Are Essential Within Education - 989 Words

Assessment Assessments are essential within education because the role of assessments is to measure students’ progression. They provide evidence of students’ prior knowledge, thinking, and understanding and should be created to meet the needs of every student because every student is different and learns differently, as well as at a different pace. Assessments should reflect the objectives of the lesson being taught and the frequency of those assessments should be considered. Assessments can also help teachers to improve student learning. How assessments affect students should also be taken into consideration because assessments can create winners and losers, which is not the goal. Everyone should be a winner. Assessments must reflect the objectives of the lesson being assessed. Students should be given objectives prior to every lesson on what they are expected to learn. It is the teacher’s job to make sure that the assessment reflects those objectives. The frequency of assessments makes a huge difference in the learning process. If students aren’t being assessed until the end of a lesson or the semester, then that is more information for them to have to remember for test purposes, which usually results in cramming. If students are assessed frequently they tend to do better because they would not be overwhelmed with huge amount of information to remember at one time. (Vega, 2014) There are different ways to assess students besides sitting students down and havingShow MoreRelatedHow Educators Use Assessments Within Their Classroom Essay1386 Words   |  6 PagesEducators in present education systems are constantly acquiring essential information about the academic strengths and weaknesses that their students possess. In order to gain information that will be beneficial for students’ learning, educators must evaluate the academic performance of their students as a means to improve learning in content areas. 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This curriculum plan aimed to develop the essential employability skills to the multitude client group which inc ludes the different age, gender and ethnic groups. This curriculum plan targeted to complete within the period of eight weeks with theoretical and practical sessions. In each session the progression of the plan with a close considerationRead MoreThe Professional Development Of A Teacher1631 Words   |  7 Pagesimportant to recognise that good teaching methods have a significant positive impact on how students lean. 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Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior. Answer: Introduction Recently an electronic company has been receiving numerous customer complaints management which make sales and customer service representative (CSR) department sick of hearing angry customers voice. The marketing/sales manager requested for analysis of the customer complaints data to find out problems and come up with solutions. In this paper therefore we attempt to discuss customer complaints, product family, and types of customers. In business arena, customers are regarded as the Kings and Queens who deserve to be listened to. The handling of customer complaints is therefore a critical component aimed at providing superior customer performance. According to Albrecht (1995), there are three key aspects of handling customer complaints. The aspects are; acknowledging customer complaints, identifying customer complaints, and handling customer complaints. Data analysis The data in the spreadsheet is pulled out from Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system of the company which is active in the electronic industry. The ERP systems takes note of the date when the complaint was initiated, date when the response was received, name of the customer, type of the complaint, family in which the product under complaint belongs to among other variables. A total of 719 complaints were received and this makes the basis of the analysis for this report. For efficient analysis and internalization, the data is broken down into various variable-specifics as below: Complaint types Table 1 below gives the total complaint types. As can be seen, majority of complaints management (n = 233, 32.4%) reported by customers was related to delivery followed by wrong quantity (n = 136, 18.9%). The least type of complaints recorded was other (unspecified) type of complaints (n =3, 0.4%) Table 1: Total complaint types Row Labels Count of Complaint Type Delivery 233 Wrong Quantity 136 Lost In Transit 127 Wrong Product 118 Packaging 36 Poor Response 33 Damaged 18 Quality of workmanship 8 Invoice Error 7 Other 3 (blank) Grand Total 719 The chart below illustrates the above information. Product family Next, we looked at the frequency distribution of the various product families. The complaints received were found to come from 15 different product families. Majority of the complaints (n = 60, 8.34%) belonged to the product family PF12. The product family PF6 had the lowest number of complaints recorded (n = 41, 5.70%). Row Labels Count of Product Family Percent PF12 60 8.34% PF10 55 7.65% PF2 54 7.51% PF8 49 6.82% PF14 48 6.68% PF3 48 6.68% PF7 48 6.68% PF1 47 6.54% PF15 47 6.54% PF4 47 6.54% PF11 46 6.40% PF5 44 6.12% PF9 43 5.98% PF13 42 5.84% PF6 41 5.70% Grand Total 719 100.00% The chart below illustrates the above information. Association between complaint type and product family We also conducted an association test to verify whether there is significant association between type of complaint and product family. The following hypothesis was tested; H0: There is no significant association between type of complaint and product family H1: There is significant association between type of complaint and product family Tested at 5% level of significance Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 142.012a 126 .156 Likelihood Ratio 144.794 126 .121 N of Valid Cases 719 a. 90 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .17. A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relation between type of complaint and product family. The relation between these variables was insignificant, Problem definition The major problem as can be seen is the process of packaging till the products gets to the product management. This was established to be the major root cause of the various issues experienced by the customers. The companys organizations structure could also possibly affect the customer satisfaction levels. It seems there are few employees who have a lot of tasks put on them to accomplish. This affects the workmanship thereby resulting to some of the issues experienced-the few workers available are highly overworked to the extent that they get confused. In terms of the warehouse supervision, there are only two supervisors manning the warehouse and they are both in charge of the inbound and outbound supervisory work going on. The equipment and machinery used in the warehouse seems to be faulty thus brining issues such as wrong quantity packed as well as wrong product (Radovilsky Hegde, 2011). Response received also contributed as being one of the major complaints raised. This shows either the staff deliberately fail to acknowledge the customer complaint or they dont give a clear direction on how to handle the customers issue. Solutions and suggestions Most of the complaints raised by the customers are to do with human aspect (human errors). It is therefore imperative that all the staff in the warehouse to undergo serious training so that the can fully understand their roles and how to go about their duties in a more effective and efficient way. All customer service personnel should also be trained on how to handle various customer complaints effectively and being empowered to respond in a positive manner. The company should also ensure that the machines and equipment in the warehouse are up-to-date and in condition. One problem noted was failure by machines to package right quantities, this can be minimized by doing away any faulty machine at the warehouse(Yilmaz, et al., 2015). References Albrecht, K., 1995. At Americas Service: How Your Company Can Join the Customer Service Revolution. Davidow, M., 2014. The a-craft model of organizational responses to customer complaints and their impact on post-complaint customer behavior. , Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior. Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Volume 27, p. 70. Radovilsky, Z. Hegde, V., 2011. Identifying and Analyzing Quality in Supply Chain. California Journal of Operations Management. 9(1), p. 5870. Yilmaz, C., Varnali, K. Kasnakoglu, B. T., 2015. How do firms benefit from customer complaints?. Journal of Business Research, 69(2), pp. 944-955.

Impact of illegal immigrants on America

Table of Contents Introduction Background information on illegal immigrants Impact of illegal immigrants/findings Implications Conclusion Works Cited Introduction The question of illegal immigrants has been a serious issue for some analysts in the country. While most citizens would see them as dangerous individuals, invading the country to secure jobs from them and control criminal activities, other stakeholder mark their importance in the economy. How they hurt America may take different viewpoints depending on the preceptor and attitudes that one has traditionally believed. Illegal immigrants may be defined differently, depending on their unlawful nature. In as much as a high number of immigrants are in the country, their presence has a significant implication on the population ranging from the economy, politics and societal factors; these factors are often viewed differently by different components of the society.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Impact of illegal immigrants on America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Background information on illegal immigrants Unlawful settlers are essentially people who meet the borders without proper authority, and so their overall impression as criminals. This form of migration goes against national policies and immigration laws (Camarota). There are several types of immigrants who enter the country with different objectives. Some stay permanently, while others cross the border to fulfill interim goals. The largest numbers of immigrants by country of origin come from Mexico. Guatemala, India and china have also reported large numbers. There are three indicators through which a person may be termed as an illegal immigrant; unauthorized crossing of borders, overstaying in a country beyond the legally allowed time, or through desecration of any laws of disclosure (FAIR). They vary, from those who legally cross borders without inspection, to those who get smuggled in containers. Those who overstay their permitted extent are averagely better educated and monetarily secure than those who illegally cross the border. Impact of illegal immigrants/findings Most forbidden immigrants steal jobs or the name of ordinary citizens who are arguably too tired to work. Some companies, operating with judicial employees, are faced with competition from such individuals who run organizations with immigrants, who are commonly underpaid, pay less levies and are comfortable working in appalling states (Camarota). Thousands of prisoners are held captive each year as illegal immigrants, mostly using advanced technology, which is expensive to maintain. Those who are captured while gaining entry into the country have to be accommodated in prison. There are some who access entry in order to gain some illegal objectives (FAIR). Drug and human trafficking are related activities that most barons undertake. Others have a violent nature which may re sult in violation or kidnap activities. They desire to get a better living, and hence go to any extents, thus may be found guilty of murder. The relationship between illegal immigrants and evil has always been cited. The 9/11 attack has vastly been blamed on these characters. Were there strict measures to curb them from crossing the border, preliminary activities on how they could choose where to foster their subversive activities could have been halted.Advertising Looking for research paper on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thousands of immigrants residing in Las Vegas valley lost their construction jobs due to a dip in the new housing market (Pratt). As a result, they could not distribute money in the local economy as they used to; further, many of them left the area. The effects of their lost wages and their spending on the administration’s income were felt, impairing some of the basic services r endered to legal citizens. The impact of the cost of illegal immigrants to the community has therefore not been clearly comprehended. Illegal immigrants who have been lately integrating with locals are better educated than the previous lot, better equipped with an academy education, and in search of better service opportunities. However, huge bulks of the unauthorized immigrants have lower education levels than the native (Normandi). They work in industries and commercial-related centers, including repair and agriculture. A study covered by the NAS signifies that their excise do not consider the fee of services they entertain. The report further states that Americans cannot be offered superior-quality training, retirement security and appropriate nursing if the country continues to admit underprivileged and inexperienced immigrants. They are also pleased to work for lower wages, hence depressing the salaries of legal citizens (Camarota). Illegal immigration increases the nation†™s population, usually inappropriately as some of them may be undocumented. Implications Hosting each of these individuals in prison costs thousands of dollars, which could have been invested elsewhere were there no illegal immigrants. Had there been better control over the borders, such aliens with terrorist mind could not have committed such heinous acts. Their presence in the country is thus seen as a probable peril to the wellbeing of Americans. From the free trade area of view, unrestricted migration and illicit migration lead to increased productivity, increased earnings and consumer spending, and ultimately lowers employment levels (Normandi). If these undocumented immigrants are forced out of the country, the state would lose some jobs and billions in cash (Pratt). The amount of money circulating in the economy would no longer be available, and less money would be transacted in design of consumer spending and overseas transfers. Pratt further elucidates that more than 50% of construction workers and manual laborers in most states are not legal citizens.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Impact of illegal immigrants on America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the lack of documentation of these individuals poses a greater harm to the population. Economists and psychoanalysts thus cannot see the risk of losing them (Camarota). Most Americans will also complain about their presence without realizing how the economy may experience a dip without illegal immigrants. According to the findings of the Perryman group, an organization reputable in economic explorations, the state would lose close to 3 million jobs and  ½ trillion dollars in circulation without the presence of these characters. These loses would ripple through the economy, as the companies and industries which depend on their services would fail (Pratt). The harm that these aliens cause is mostly felt by poo r Americans. Children and minorities will also test the brunt, as they contend for social services. These individuals in vulnerable sectors of the economy feel the impact of dishonest immigrants on local resources (FAIR). An all-inclusive program to control illegal immigration must therefore be formulated. It may require plenty of resources to check their access, but ensuring that they do not falsify documents to obtain employment or operate any public services that tax-payers guarantee (FAIR). Controlling this migration goes further than restricting the volume, but the government substantially involving intelligence capacities to ensure that illegal immigrants do not abuse its citizens. Conclusion It may be argued that it is the individuals hiring the illegal immigrants who are harming America in their desire for cheap labor. Most of these people enter the country in search of opportunities to improve their lives, and in no way do they intend to harm Americans (Camarota). They are usually more hard working than the average citizen who has a university education, because of their desire to succeed and escape poverty. The term ‘illegal’ is what makes these individuals look worthless. While they may disrupt the economy in forms of record keeping and budgetary allocations in the society, they in fact stimulate the economy. Measures to ensure that such individuals enter the country legally, and proper documentation is done must therefore be formulated.Advertising Looking for research paper on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Works Cited Camarota, Steven. The high cost of cheap labor: illegal immigration and the federal budget. Center for immigration studies, August, 2004. Web. Available at https://cis.org/Report/High-Cost-Cheap-Labor FAIR. Illegal immigration is a crime. Federation for American immigration reform: issue brief. March 2003. Web. Normandin, Ryan. Opinion: illegal immigration: it’s illegal. The Tech, online edition, January 13, 2010. Web. Available at https://thetech.com/2010/01/13/normandin-v129-n61 Pratt, Timothy. Report: illegal immigrants contribute billions to state. Las Vegas sun: Housing, Jobs. May 23, 2008. Web. Available at https://lasvegassun.com/news/2008/may/23/report-illegal-immigrants-contribute-billions-stat/ This research paper on Impact of illegal immigrants on America was written and submitted by user Joe A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The will of the majority is naturally powerful in a democracy essays

The will of the majority is naturally powerful in a democracy essays The will of the majority is naturally powerful in a democracy. Most American constitutions have strengthened this natural power even further by providing that representatives to the legislatures are appointed directly by the people for short terms (such that the legislature is very ready to obey the wishes of the majority), and then by concentrating almost all of the powers of government in the legislatures. The majority derives its moral authority from the notion that: (1) a great number will tend to be more enlightened than a small group of men; and (2) the interest of the greatest number should be preferred to that of the few. Primarily, however, Americans accept the power of the majority because they all hope to profit from it someday. This gives the majority immense power. There is nothing to stop the majority once it has decided on a course of action. Further, once the majority has irrevocably decided a question, it is no longer discussed. This is because the majority is a power that does not respond well to criticism. Those who hold views different than the majority are ostricised. There is little independence of mind or true freedom of discussion in America. The modern American tends to conform to the ideas of the majority rather than rebel against them. The powers granted to the majority in America leave the minority in danger of being subjected to tyranny. There are very few checks in America against this possibility. To minimize the risks of tyranny, the legislature should be chosen by the majority, the executive must have a strength of its own, and the judicial power must be independent of the two others. This is not the situation in most American States. The potential for misuse of the power of the majority is the greatest threat to American political institutions. Misuse of power often leads to a loss of that power through a revolution. Although the American governments are centralized, ...

Walmart Foreign Expansion Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Walmart Foreign Expansion Case Study - Essay Example The company adapted practices to fit the nature of Mexico market before transforming the market culture of American practices. However, the company has been criticized for bribery cases in the establishment of outlets in Mexico involving the executives. The company has fought these allegations through internal investigations as well as inviting other authorities not only for Mexico but also other markets which promote Walmart’s reputation. The company faced difficulties in penetrating the Japan market due to strong government protection for the local firms. The company has adopted some local practices that have promoted growth through acquired local firms. The same is observed in the China’s market that where company has adopted labor practices and considerations for customer tastes and preferences. The company has however failed in the Germany and Korea markets due to failure of adapting practices in accordance to the nature of markets in these countries. For instance, in Germany, the company disregarded labor practices and failed to hire locals to enhance management. The company also failed to improve the quality of the products and items offered. Walmart could not succeed in other countries by adopting its wholesome merchandising strategy. This is because the global markets present different factors that are not observed in the American market. Different countries have varied cultures, economic conditions and other factors that shape tastes and preferences of the locals. Firms that would succeed in these markets should satisfy the customer needs and therefore a flexible merchandising strategy is appropriate for use to promote success. Following this, Walmart would apply part of its marketing strategy that is valid for to a country and adopt other local practices to the company’s strategy. Failure to apply flexible marketing strategy, the company would experience

Supplier Relations Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Supplier Relations - Research Paper Example Generally, a good supplier relation can be described as one in which the company does not keep itself apart from the suppliers (Lautenbacher and Stidham, 2009). Research has actually showed that there exist several companies who only contact their suppliers when they are running out of stock. Even among such companies, the only kind of communication that goes on has to do with quantities of goods needed and the periods the goods are needed. These companies totally fail to see their suppliers as an integral part of their business and so see no need to keep the suppliers informed about the day to day feedback on the supplies they do and the impact of the supplies on the company. For excellent supplier relationship to take place, suppliers must be aware of the daily needs of the companies in terms of demand for products and services. Suppliers also need constant feedback from companies regarding reactions from customers. This is an important move in ensuring that suppliers supply to the specifications of customers and that products supplied are always on high demand by customers so that they do not remain in the inventories for long (Kelton, et al, 2002). Aspects of Boeing's supplier relations program that specifically address reducing inventories For Boeing as an international company, there are several relations programs that it has in place to specifically address the issue of reducing inventories, maintaining quality, regulating compliance and promoting competitiveness. In order to ensure that safety stocks are adjusted downwards and that there is improvement in quality, Boeing ensures that the leading times for supply are reduced to the barest minimum (Arrand, 2007). It would be noted that suppliers have their own lead times whiles customers also have their. But it is the lead time of customer that is paramount because it is the customer that the company makes profits from. There is constant relationship with the supplier to ensure that they reduce their lead times according to the lead time of customers. This helps in reducing inventory in the sense that it leads to a reduction in the amount of time needed to hold stock together (Fofie, 2001). Another important component of ensuring that suppliers are admonished to reduce their lead times is that when the lead times are reduced, it creates enough room for top-up orders to be made in the season when adequate time has been given to measure real demand. Consequently, all forms of rush in the supply of inventory are avoided and so suppliers can take their time to supply quality products. Another important program in place by Boeing has to do with the fact that the company has special terms of conditions as part of its relationship program whereby suppliers must prove beyond reasonable doubt that they can be trusted for reliability of supply before their services are engaged. This is an important program for ensuring reduced inventory and quality of supplies made because it ensures that the need to hold safety stocks is avoided. Meanwhile, the practice of holding safety stocks is one of the major causes of increased inventory. When companies cannot trust the reliability of supply, there are often forced to hold safety stocks that may not necessarily meet the demand of customers. As soon as new stocks come in, they are forced to offload those stocks through cheap sales, rendering the finances of the company handicapped. Boeing therefore avoids this by ensuring that there is strict regulatory

Departmental imaging requirements Essay Example for Free

Departmental imaging requirements Essay Introduction Diagnosing, staging, and re-staging of cancer, as well as the monitoring and planning of cancer treatment, has traditionally relied on anatomic imaging like computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Spatially accurate medical imaging is an essential tool in three dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3DCRT) and intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) treatment planning. CT imaging is the standard imaging modality for image based radiation treatment planning (RTP). CT images provide anatomical information on the size and location of tumors in the body. They also provide electron density information for heterogeneity-based patient dose calculation. The major limitation of the CT imaging process is soft tissue contrast, which is overcome by using contrast agents or using another anatomical imaging modality like MRI. One of the disadvantages of anatomical imaging techniques like CT and MRI is its inability to characterize the tumor. Tumors need to be characterized whether they are benign or malignant and if malignant it would be helpful to know whether the proliferation is slow or fast. Necrotic, scar, and inflammatory tissue often cannot be differentiated from malignancy based on anatomic imaging alone. Anatomical imaging has high sensitivity for detection of structural changes, but a low specificity for further characterization of these abnormalities. Single photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography (PET) are imaging techniques that provide information on physiology rather than anatomy. These modalities have been used for evaluation of tumor metabolism, differentiation between tumor reoccurrence and radiation necrosis, detection of hypoxic areas of the tumor, and other functional imaging. Radiation treatment planning requires an accurate location of the tumor and the normal tissue and also knowledge of the size of the tumor for contouring the treatment volume. Although PET provides necessary functional information for RTP, it has a few limitations. The spatial resolution of PET is too poor to give accurate quantitative information. The greatest limitation in using PET for RTP is its lack of anatomical information. This limitation of PET is overcome by evaluating PET and CT images together. Fused PET and CT images give better diagnostic evaluation than PET or CT images used alone (Bar-Shalom et al, 2003; Cohade Wahl, 2003). But fusion of PET and CT images are meaningful only when they are correctly spatially registered. Hence a proper spatial registration is required for accurate delineation of tumor volume. The necessity of accurate spatial registration of fused images requires different fusion techniques for different image datasets. Software fusion and hardware fusion are the two different approaches considered by the scientific community (Townsend et al, 2003; Townsend et al, 2002). Software fusion approaches use different transformation algorithms to fuse different modality images acquired at different times. The transformation algorithms are classified as rigid and non-rigid transformation algorithms. They are based on whether they fuse images of rigid-body (e. g. , head) or non rigid (e. g. , abdomen) objects (Patton, 2001; Yap, 2002). Although software fusion gives better diagnostic information than using separate images, physicians may not rely on the information if the fused images were acquired at different times. Also the chances of a change in patient position are high for image acquisition done at different times. The hardware approach of image fusion is headed towards designing a single imaging system to acquire simultaneously the different image modalities required. Hardware fusion is partially achieved by construction of a hybrid PET/CT scanner (Beyer et al, 2000; Townsend et al, 2004) which acquires different modalities sequentially. These hybrid scanners are two separate scanners enabled to operate in sequence one after another to acquire the different image modality datasets in a single imaging session. Although hybrid scanners do not give a true hardware fusion and have not proven to be a better fusion technique scientifically (Kalabbers et al, 2002), they have gained popularity for image acquisition in a single session. Due to reduced scan time and patient motion, PET/CT is considered reliable among the oncology community. These hybrid PET/CT scanners, due to reduced scan time and reliable registration of PET and CT datasets, are becoming common in RTP. A PET image fused with a CT image can be used in treatment planning to eliminate geographic misses of the tumor and escalation of dose to the hypermetabolic aspects of a tumor. Fused images improve the accuracy in staging of lymph nodes. Although the use of PET/CT in RTP is growing at a fast pace, little research has been done in the direction of validating the PET/CT datasets for RTP. Discussion CT images describe the electronic density distribution of cross sections of the patient anatomy. CT systems provide gray scale display of linear attenuation coefficients that closely relate to the density of the tissue. CT imaging evolved from conventional planar radiographs. In planar X-ray film imaging the three dimensional anatomy of the patient is reduced to a two dimensional attenuation projection image and the depth information of the structures are lost. In CT imaging several attenuation projection images for a volume of tissue are acquired at different angles. These sets of projection images are reconstructed by filtered back projection algorithm to generate two dimensional attenuation cross-section of anatomy of the patient. The attenuation measurement for a CT detector element is given by Equation 1 and Equation 2. Equation 1 represents attenuation measurement for homogenous object and Equation 2 represent attenuation measurement for inhomogeneous (heterogeneous) objects. _ P(x) =1n [I0] = ? x ? (1) __ _ I x _ _ _ P(x) = 1n [I0] = x d x ? (2) __ L _ I x In the above equation P(x) is the measured projection data for attenuation along the x direction. Io is the intensity of the x-ray beam measured without the patient in the way for that detector element. This is also known as a blank scan. I (x) is the measured intensity after attenuation by the patient.? (x) is the measured attenuation coefficient as a function of location in the patient. A CT scanner positions a rotating x-ray tube and detector on opposite sides of the patient to acquire projection images. Early CT scanners used pencil beams of x-rays and a combination of translation and rotation motion to acquire projection images (Bushberg et al, 1994). Modern CT scanners have a stationary or rotating detector array with a rotating fan beam x-ray tube. There are also two types of scanning: axial and helical CT scanning. In axial scanning the patient is moved step by step acquiring sets of projection images for each slice. In helical scanning the patient table moves continuously while the x-ray tube acquires a series of projection images. The projection images are acquired for a helical path around the patient. In helical scanning to reconstruct a cross-sectional planar image, the helical data is interpolated to give axial plane projection data before reconstruction. By removing the time to index the table between slices the total scan time of the patient is reduced. Also reconstruction can be done for any slice thickness after acquiring the data. This helical scanning is available in most of the current CT scanners. The reconstructed CT image is a two dimensional matrix of numbers, with each pixel corresponding to a spatial location in the image and in the patient. Usually the matrix is 512 pixels wide and 512 pixels tall covering a 50 cm x 50 cm field of view. The numeric value in each pixel represents the attenuation coefficient as a gray level in the CT image. These numbers are called Hounsfield units or CT numbers. The reconstruction process generates a matrix of Hounsfield units which give the linear attenuation values normalized to the attenuation of water. This normalization is given by Equation 3. CT Number (HU) = 1000 (? pixel ? water) ____________ ?water CT number gives an indication of the type of tissue. Water has a CT number of zero. Negative CT numbers are typical for air spaces, lung tissues and fatty tissue. Values of ? pixel greater than ? water correspond to other soft tissues and bone. Radiologists occasionally make critical diagnostic decisions based on CT number of particular regions of interest. Also attenuation values given by CT numbers are used to calculate the dose delivered to the tumor in RTP. CT number is an important parameter in CT images which must be frequently checked for accuracy. Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging generates images that depict the distribution of positron emitting radionuclide in the patient body. PET imaging often uses the F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) radioactive tracer to track increased glucose metabolic activity of tumor cells and to provide images of the whole body distribution of FDG. When the positron is emitted by the radioactive tracer it annihilates with an electron to generate two 511 kev photons emitted in nearly opposite directions. These photons interact with the ring of detector elements surrounding the patient. If both the emitted photons are detected then the point of annihilation lies on the line joining the points of detection. This line joining the points of detection is known as the line of response (LOR). The circuit used by the scanner to record the detector interactions occurring at the same time is called coincidence circuitry. This whole process is called annihilation coincidence detection. Thus a PET scanner uses annihilation coincidence detection instead of mechanical collimation like gamma cameras to acquire projections of activity distribution in the patient. Projections acquired at different angles are reconstructed using iterative algorithms to generate cross-sectional images of activity distribution. The annihilation coincidence detection process allows many false events to be acquired. Corrections are necessary for these false events before the projections are reconstructed. The total events acquired are classified as trues, random and scatter. A true coincidence is simultaneous interactions occurring in the detectors resulting from emissions occurring in the same nuclear transformation. Random coincidences occur when emissions from different nuclear transformations interact in coincidence with the surrounding detectors. Scatter coincidence occurs when one or both photons from annihilation is scattered in the patient body and interact with the detector to give a false LOR. The acquired annihilation events need to be corrected for random and scatter events. Random coincidence events along any LOR may be directly measured using the delayed coincidence method (Levin, 2003). The delayed coincidence method uses two coincidence circuits. The first circuit measures both true and random coincidence events. The second circuit has a delay of several hundred microseconds inserted into the coincidence window, so all true coincidences are thrown out of coincidence. The counts measured in the second circuit are subtracted from the first to give true counts. Scatter correction is done for the projection data by model-based scatter estimation (Levin, 2003). The scatter correction factor is estimated by mathematical models and applied to the projection data before reconstruction. Image fusion was initially achieved by software fusion of anatomical and functional images. Software fusion was generally successful with brain and rigid body volumes. It encountered significant difficulties when fusing images of the rest of the body. Alignment algorithms fail to converge the two image sets due to problems of patient movement or discrepancies in patient positioning between two scans. Also involuntary movements of internal organs arise when patient are imaged on different scanners and at different times. Dual modality PET/CT imaging is a combination of imaging technologies helping to acquire accurately aligned anatomical and functional images in the same scanning session. Also an additional advantage of the combined PET/CT scanner is the use of CT images for attenuation correction. CT images can be scaled in energy and used to correct the PET data for attenuation effects (Kinahan et al, 2003; Kinahan et al, 1998). Dual-modality PET/CT was first built at the University of Pittsburgh in collaboration with CTI (Knoxville, TN) and Siemens Medical Solutions (Hoffman Estates, IL), combining separate PET and CT scanning devices into one device. The PET/CT prototype consisted of a rotating partial ring PET system and a single slice CT scanner mounted on the same rotating support. The CT scanner combined with PET often uses helical scanning CT to enable fast patient throughput, but new scanners with both helical and axial scanning are available now. The CT data is usually acquired first, followed by PET acquisition. There are typically two separate acquisition processing units for CT and PET, and an integrated display workstation. The acquired CT and PET datasets are sending to the reconstruction processing unit for reconstruction. Reconstructed images are fused in the fusion workstation. CT and PET images can also be separately viewed in the workstation. The protocol for PET/CT imaging starts with patient preparation. 5 – 15 mCi of FDG is injected into the patient 45 – 60 min before the start of image acquisition. After 45 min, the glucose circulates through the body; the patient gets ready for image acquisition by emptying the bladder. The patient is positioned on the table for an initial topogram. The topogram is used to select the scan range for PET/CT image acquisition. The scan range is selected as a number of bed positions. Once the image acquisition region is selected in the topogram, the helical CT scan is done first; it takes around 30 sec to acquire one bed position. After completion of the CT portion, the scanner bed is moved to the PET starting position and the emission scan is started. The emission scan duration per bed position varies with the detector technology used. With conventional bismuth germinate oxyorthosilicate (BGO) system, acquisition times will range from 5 to 8 minutes per bed position. The new lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) technology reduces emission scans to 3 to 5 minutes per bed position (Humm et al, 2003). The CT data are used to perform attenuation correction. Image reconstruction is completed a few minutes after the PET image acquisition is completed. Since the CT data is used for attenuation correction, the total scan duration for a PET/CT scanner is shorter than that for stand-alone PET scanner, because the CT acquisition is much faster than a conventional PET transmission acquisition. Conclusion. To conclude, Positron Emission Tomography/Computerized Tomography (PET/CT) is an imaging test that produces high resolution pictures of the body’s biological functions and anatomic structures. These images show body metabolism and other functions rather than simply the gross anatomy and structure revealed by a standard CT or MRI scan. This is important because functional changes are often present before obvious structural changes in tissues are evident. PET/CT imaging can uncover abnormalities that might otherwise go undetected. For example, PET/CT can determine the presence and extent of tumors unseen by other imaging techniques, or detect Alzheimer’s disease one to two years before the diagnosis would be made with certainty by your primary doctor. PET/CT is believed to be the most accurate imaging test available to evaluate lung cancer, colon cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, lymphoma, head and neck cancer, and esophageal cancer. In published research studies, PET has been shown to have an approximately 90% accuracy in many of these cancer types. PET is the most accurate imaging test available to determine the presence of a dementia process such as Alzheimer’s disease. PET is also the most accurate test available to evaluate patients who have had a previous heart attack and are being considered for a procedure to improve blood flow to the injured heart muscle. References Bar-Shalom, R. ; Yefremov, N. ; Guralnik, L. ; Gaitini, D. ; Frenkel, A. ; Kuten, A. ; Altman, H. ; Keidar, Z. ; Israel, O. 2003. Clinical performance of PET/CT in evaluation of cancer: Additional value for diagnostic imaging and patient management. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, Vol. (44. ): 1200-1209. Beyer, T. ; Townsend, D. W; Brun, T. ; Kinahan, P. E; Charron, M. ; Roddy, R. ; Young, J. ; Byars, L. ; Nutt, R. A. 2000. Combined PET/CT scanner for clinical oncology. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, Vol (41):1369-1379. Bushberg, J. T; Seibert, J. A; Leidholdt Jr. , E. M; Boone, J. M. 1994. Essential of Physics of Imaging (2nd Edition). Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore. Cohade, C. ; Wahl, R. L. 2003. Application of positron emission tomography/computed tomography image fusion in clinical positron emission tomography-Clinical use, Interpretation methods, diagnostic improvements. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, Vol (XXXIII): 228-237. Humm, J. L; Rosenfeld, A; Guerra, A. D. 2003. From PET detectors to PET scanners. Eurpoean Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular imaging, Vol (30): 1574-1597. Kalabbers, B. M; De Munck, J. C. ; Slotman, B. J; Bree, R. D; Hoekstra, O. S; Boellaard, R. ; Lammertsma, A. A. 2002. Matching PET and CT scans of the head and neck area: Development of method and validation. Medical Physics, Vol (29), 2230-2238. Kinahan, P. E; Hasegawa, B. H; Beyer, T. 2003. X-Ray based attenuation correction for positron emission tomography/computed tomography scanners. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, Vol (XXXIII): 166-179. Kinahan, P. E; Townsend, D. W; Beyer, T. ; Sashin, D. 1998. Attenuation correction for a combined 3D PET/CT scanner. Medical Physics, Vol (25): 2046-2053. Levin, C. S. 2003. Data Correction Methods and Image reconstruction algorithms for positron emission tomography. AAPM meeting. Continuing education, San Diego. Patton, J. 2001. Image Fusion in Nuclear Medicine – PET/CT. Abstract ID: 7192, AAPM Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City. Townsend, D. W; Beyer, T. ; Blodgett, T. M. 2003. PET/CT scanners: A Hardware approach to Image Fusion. 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The Welcome Ceremony: A Role :: essays research papers fc

The Welcome Ceremony is performed when visitors entering a village where they are expected usually find the ali'i and faipule waiting for them either outside or within a house. If the occasion is a very formal one, the whole village may have assembled in its various groups, matai, Pastors of different denominations, Women's Committee in distinctive uniforms, schools and young men and women. In this case, a arch of welcome will probably also have been constructed. The meeting house (fale fono) and other houses set aside for the adjustment of the party, are almost certain to have been carefully and beautifully decorated with leaves and flowers. In search of our topic, â€Å"The Welcome Ceremony,† also known in Samoan,†Usuga,† we put together the three categories that were given to us. We, as a group wanted our topic to relate to the theme, so we elaborated on our topic,† The Welcome Ceremony: A Role In Communication Between Different Villages, Environments and Agriculture.† Our topic if shortened,† The Welcome Ceremony,† is a ceremony performed to welcome visitors, its performed with hospitality, honor and respect. Most visitors find this ceremony pleasing and delightful. They admire the customs used, for instance: the sitting positions, the cultural greetings with High Rank Samoan Chiefs and Pastors(Faifeau) of different denomination and then manners taken place during the ceremony. We carried out our research by gathering sources from primary and secondary sources. We planned and gathered our sources with patience. Source of research were of interviews, internet access and brief readings. The category chosen to carry out our topic is, a Group Performance. Why a group performance? We want people to know and see in their own visual aid how the ceremony is performed. We also want to state for a fact that our generation knows what the ceremony is and the process of the performance. The topic being brought to life by the performers tells or sends the audience a message, telling them that we, the presenters, are interested in our topic. It also sends a message to the newcomers that our generation is bringing back the true meaning of our culture. We are reviving our Samoan culture. By doing so, we picked the performance category to show what we understand about our topic. The welcome ceremony: a role of communication between different villages, environments and agricultures; to us, it has a great relationship to this years theme. The Welcome ceremony has a lot of communicating actions and reactions.

Freund

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor'spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of deviance focus ed on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer's address is Department of Sociology, Dr ake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer's (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towardthat e nd, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective'realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker's (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women's liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt's (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann's as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider's explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsig htful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim's work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor's task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor's sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested & other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested & other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar'sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield'sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor'slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people's of their own or others'motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. 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